Sunday, May 17, 2020
The XYZ Affair Dispute Between France and the U.S.
The XYZ Affair was a dispute between diplomats from France and the United States in 1797 and 1798, during the early days of the presidential administration of John Adams that resulted in a limited, undeclared war known as the Quasi-War. Peace was quickly restored when the U.S. and France agreed on the Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine. The disputeââ¬â¢s name comes from the letters used by President Adams to refer to the French diplomats: Jean Hottinguer (X), Pierre Bellamy (Y), and Lucien Hauteval (Z). Key Takeaways: The XYZ Affair The XYZ Affair was a serious diplomatic dispute between France and the United States in 1797 and 1798 that led to the undeclared war between the nations known as the Quasi-War.The name of the affair comes from the letters X, Y, and Z used by U.S. President John Adams to refer to the names of three of the French diplomats involved.The dispute and Quasi-War were resolved by the Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine. Background In 1792, France went to war with Britain, Austria, and several other European monarchies. U.S. President George Washington had directed America to remain neutral. However, France, angered by the United Statesââ¬â¢ conclusion of Jayââ¬â¢s Treaty with Great Britain in 1795, began seizing American ships transporting goods to their enemies. In response, President John Adams sent U.S diplomats Elbridge Gerry, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and John Marshall to France in July 1797 with orders to restore harmony. Far from brokering peace, the U.S. envoys soon found themselves embroiled in the XYZ Affair. Jay's Treaty Had Angered France Ratified in 1795, Jayââ¬â¢s Treaty between the United States and Great Britain peacefully resolved issues lingering after the Treaty of Paris of 1783 had ended the American Revolutionary War. The treaty also facilitated a decade of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain during the height of the bloody French Revolutionary Wars. Having just helped the U.S. defeat the British in its own revolution, France was deeply angered by Jayââ¬â¢s Treaty. In the United States, the treaty divided Americans, contributing to the creation of Americaââ¬â¢s first political parties, the pro-Treaty Federalists and the anti-Treaty Anti-Federalists or Democratic Republicans. The XYZ Negotiations: A Bad Time Was Had by All Even before they sailed for Paris, American diplomats Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall were not optimistic. Like others in the Adams administration, they viewed the French governmentââ¬âthe Directoryââ¬âas a source of such extreme decadence and intrigue that it would stand in the way of accomplishing their mission. Sure enough, as soon as they arrived, the American trio was told they would not be allowed to meet face-to-face with the French Foreign Minister and chief diplomat, the flamboyant and unpredictable Maurice de Talleyrand. Instead, they were met by Talleyrandââ¬â¢s intermediaries, Hottinguer (X), Bellamy (Y), and Hauteval (Z). Also stirring the pot was French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais, who had helped funnel much-needed French money to the United States during the American Revolution. X, Y, and Z told the Americans that Talleyrand would meet with them only if they agreed to satisfy three conditions: The United States had to agree to provide France with a substantial low-interest loan.The United States had to agree to pay all claims of damages filed against France by owners of American merchant ships seized or sunk by the French Navy.The United States had to pay a bribe of 50,000 British pounds directly to Talleyrand, himself. While the U.S. envoy was aware that diplomats from other nations had paid bribes in order to deal with Talleyrand, they were shocked and doubted that any such concessions on their part would result in substantial changes in French policy. In reality, Talleyrand had intended to end the French attacks on U.S. merchant shipping all along, but only after increasing his personal wealth and political influence within the French Directory government. In addition, Talleyrandââ¬â¢s intermediaries, X, Y, and Z, having invested heavily in U.S. businesses themselves, wanted to preserve peace. However, emboldened by Franceââ¬â¢s victories in its ongoing war with Britain, X, Y, and Z increased the amount of the requested U.S. loan and even threatened a military invasion of America if the U.S. diplomats refused to agree. When the U.S. diplomats held their ground and refused to agree to the French demands, Talleyrand finally met with them. While he dropped his demands for a loan and a bribe, he refused to put an end to French seizures of American merchant ships. While Americans Pinckney and Marshall prepared to leave France, Elbridge Gerry decided to remain, hoping to avert an outright war. President John Adams Reaction to the XYZ Affair As he read the disheartening reports from Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall, President Adams prepared for war with France. While pro-war Federalists urged Congress to support him, Democratic-Republican leaders distrusted his motives and demanded that he make the diplomatic correspondence from Paris public. Adams agreed, but knowing the sensitivity of the contents, he redacted the names of Talleyrandââ¬â¢s intermediaries, replacing them with the letters X, Y, and Z. He also used the letter W to refer to Nicholas Hubbard, an Englishman employed by a Dutch bank who took part in the latter stages of the negotiations. Though Adams prepared for war, he never officially declared it. In France, Talleyrand, realizing the risks of his actions, sought to restore diplomatic relations with America and the U.S. Congress agreed to negotiate directly with the French Directorate. Meanwhile, in the Caribbean, the U.S. Navy had started fighting French forces commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte attempting to defeat Toussaint Lââ¬â¢Ouverture, leader of the Haitian independence movement. The Convention of 1800 By 1799, Napoleon had come to power in France and was focused on recovering the North American Louisiana territory from Spain. Talleyrand, retained by Napoleon as Foreign Minister, was trying to prevent further hostilities with the U.S. The British, still at war with France, were thrilled with the growing anti-French sentiment in the U.S. and offered to help the Americans fight their common foe. However, President Adams was convinced that if France had really wanted an all-out war it would have responded to Americaââ¬â¢s attacks on French ships in the Caribbean. For his part, Talleyrand, also fearing the costs of a full-scale war, hinted that he would meet with a new American diplomat. Despite the publicââ¬â¢s and the Federalistsââ¬â¢ desire for war, Adams sent not one, but three peace negotiatorsââ¬âWilliam Vans Murray, Oliver Ellsworth, and William Richardson Davieââ¬âto France. In March 1800, American and French diplomats finally convened in Paris to hammer out a peace agreement. After first annulling the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, they reached a new agreement based on the original Model Treaty of 1776 that would become known as the Convention of 1800.à à The agreement peacefully ended the 1778 alliance between the United States and France while releasing France from any financial responsibility for damages to U.S. shipping and commerce since the start of the French Revolution. The specific terms of the Convention of 1800 included: The Quasi-War was to end.France agreed to return captured American ships.U.S. agreed to compensate its citizens for damages inflicted by France on American shipping (damages totaled $20 million; U.S. paid $3.9 million to heirs of original claimants in 1915).The Franco-American Alliance was terminated.U.S. and France granted each other most-favored-nation status.U.S. and France reestablished commercial relations on terms similar to those outlined in Franco-American Alliance. It would not be for nearly 150 more years that the United States would enter into another formal alliance with a foreign country: the Montevideo Convention was ratified in 1934. Sources Stinchcombe, William (1980). ââ¬Å"The XYZ Affair.â⬠Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313222344.Berkin, Carol. ââ¬Å"A Sovereign People: The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism.â⬠New York: Basic Books, 2017.DeConde, Alexander. ââ¬Å"The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France, 1797-1801.â⬠New York: Charles Scribnerââ¬â¢s Sons, 1966.Kuehl, John W. ââ¬Å"Southern Reaction to the XYZ Affair: An Incident in the Emergence of American Nationalism.â⬠Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 70, no. 1 (1972)Lyon, E. Wilson (September 1940). ââ¬Å"The Franco-American Convention of 1800.â⬠The Journal of Modern History.
Wednesday, May 6, 2020
The ENIAC Project Its Significance in Computer Science...
The ENIAC Project: Its Significance in Computer Science and Society ââ¬Å"â⬠¦With the advent of everyday use of elaborate calculations, speed has become paramount to such a high degree that there is no machine on the market today capable of satisfying the full demand of modern computational methods. The most advanced machines have greatly reduced the time required for arriving at solutions to problems which might have required months or days by older procedures. This advance, however, is not adequate for many problems encountered in modern scientific work and the present invention is intended to reduce to seconds such lengthy computationsâ⬠¦Ã¢â¬ From the ENIAC patent (No. 3,120,606), filed 26 June 1947. When World War II broke out in 1939â⬠¦show more contentâ⬠¦However, both of these two men did most of the work on the ENIAC and deserve credit for its creation. The army deserves credit as well. Without the militaryââ¬â¢s discovery, driven by the emergency of lack of war technology, the ENIAC memo might never have been found and the project never initiated. The ENIAC was an incredibly complex and gigantic machine for its time. Although simple calculators that were able to add and multiply had existed for several years, the ENIAC was unique for several reasons. The ENIAC had twenty individual accumulators, rapid adding machines, which were able to add digits 0 through 9 very quickly. The fascinating part of the accumulators was that they were able to remember and store each computation and use it later on. ââ¬Å"ENIAC could discriminate between the sign of a number, compare quantities for equality, add, subtract, multiply, divide, and extract square roots. ENIAC stored a maximum of twenty 10 digit decimal numbers. Its accumulators combined the functions of an adding machine and storage unit. No central memory unit existed. 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passage to india Persuasive Essay Example For Students
passage to india Persuasive Essay A Passage to India Hindu Influence Several different literary elements work in tandem to produce the magic seen in E. M. Forsters A Passage to India. Because this novel was presented to the world less than a decade after World War I, the fantastic and exotic stories of India seized the attention of the relatively provincial society of the day, and the novels detailed presentation of Hinduism certainly excited the imaginations of thousands of readers. Benita Parry supports this assertion when saying, Hinduism takes its place at the core of the novel just as it lies at the heart of India (164). How powerful was Hinduism in India? Historians have pointed out that the Indian masses united with strength only when Gandhi appealed to them through Hinduism (Parry 164). With this in mind, it seems reasonable for Forster to devote much energy to portraying the Hindu religion. Furthermore, Forster himself expressed that he viewed himself as on nearer nodding terms with Krishna (the Hindu god of literature, art, music, and dance) than with any other god (McDowell 105). The clash between Hinduism and Christianity in A Passage to India parallels the conflict between the Indians and the English. Hinduism is best represented in the novel by Professor Godbole, and Christianity is epitomized in Mrs. Moore. Mrs. Moore comes to India with the kindness and understanding heart of a devout Christian but leaves morose and peevish. Perhaps she is haunted into this state by Professor Godboles strange song:At times there seemed rhythm, at times there was the illusion of a Western melody. But the ear, baffled repeatedly, soon lost any clue, and wandered in a maze of noises, none harsh or unpleasant, none intelligible. The sounds continued and ceased after a few moments as casually as they had begun apparently half through a bar, and upon the subdominant (84-85). When Godbole explains that his song is about a milkmaid begging for the Krishnas assistance, and Krishnas failure to appear, Mrs. Moore asks, But he comes in another song, I hope? to which Godbole immediately replies, Oh no, he refuses to come. I say to him , Come, come, come, come, come, come. He neglects to come (85). It is this song that forces Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested into emotional cocoons from which they only escape to meet horrible circumstances: Mrs. Moore is terrorized to the point of apathy, and Mrs. Quested meets horror in the caves. Although Forster admits that he finds the Hindu religion to be the most agreeable, he obviously does not hesitate to depict the flaws of the religion. Professor Godbole is undeniably distant from the mainstream society, and because of this forbidding remoteness, Godbole can never hope to actually bring about any reforms. Many critics pay special attention to authors mastery of characterization, but in A Passage to India, Forster proves that abstract ideas, such as the Hindu religion, can be developed and portrayed with as much detail as a protagonist. Because of Forsters talent, the reader, upon completing the novel, feels equally acquainted with both the Hinduism of Professor Godbole and the Christianity of Mrs. Moore.
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